Tag: Fintech

Three Reasons for the Rise of Bitcoin: Trust, Trust and Trust

Posted on by Ana Nives Radovic

Now the price of bitcoin is $34,974. Two years ago it was ten times cheaper, and five or six years ago one could buy it for a few hundred euros, no matter how much its value varied and 11 years ago you could buy 1,250 of them for just one dollar. You might ask who knew that they should buy it then and wait for today… The answer is: Nobody.

Bitcoin was created on January 3, 2009 with the intention to become a digital currency that is not under control of banks, nor part of the financial system that only a few months before that caused the whole world countless problems that many needed a decade to recover. Created in response to harsh banking practices, many initially viewed it with disbelief and suspicion… Now they regret it.

Unlike currencies that are regulated by central banks as the official means of payment, the value of the digital currency bitcoin is not controlled by any institution, but by the relationship between supply and demand, i.e. the price that customers are willing to pay. Therefore, the market principle, i.e. the higher the demand – the higher the price – is the only that affects the change in value, given that the level of supply cannot increase ever.

There are countless reasons for the increase of the demand, as when it comes to anything else, the most common cause is the relocation of capital from anything that does not work reliably at a given time, which is especially clear in these times of global economic turmoil – crises and trade wars, due to which many give up trading currency pairs, gold, oil, etc.

Contrary to the monetary policy of countries that are focused on currencies and are subject to political and economic development, the ecosystem within which bitcoin operates is a fully decentralized monetary system in which no central government manages the monetary structure. Therefore, the exchange of bitcoin takes place in accordance with precise rules and according to a strict protocol. This process takes place on a blockchain network, and all transactions on it are intangible and encrypted.

The reason for the price change

The price of bitcoin varies because, compared to other cryptocurrencies, it includes the largest volume of transactions, but its market is still relatively small compared to the markets of currencies or commodities and the value is exposed to greater fluctuations. When it comes to supply, it is limited to the initially issued 21 million units, which is why demand follows its deflationary movement in order to maintain price stability.

In addition to this, the level of demand is also affected by events that improve or damage its reputation. For example, during the first wave of its more intense growth, when its value increased from $50 to $250 in a few months and exceeded $1,000 six months later, some of the world’s largest banks spoke of it as a “bubble,” a risky phenomenon, saying that all those who invest will soon regret it. Meanwhile, electronic money such as Onecoin has emerged, which was one of the biggest scams when it comes to digital money because it was based on a pyramid scheme, but its promoters identified it with bitcoin, confusing the audience and causing the loss of value, due to the luck of trust.

However, when technology companies began testing the application of the blockchain platform, on which bitcoins run, within their services, they began to offer the possibility of paying this type, and the same banks that initially criticized this phenomenon enabled its exchange for physical money in both direction, there was a return of confidence, which raised its value above the new psychologically significant goal of $10,000. In the meantime, the oscillations continued in accordance with a series of market and political-economic events, where the largest role was played by the relations between the USA and China, including all political decisions that change the course of their economic cooperation.

Old users, new users…

In times of crisis, it has become most noticeable how much the value is actually conditioned by the perception of investors: someone will buy bitcoin, so he or she believes that the price will rise in the near or distant future. The reasons for the fall in prices range from failure to use technology designed to be the part of this process, through political pressures to regulate it, as part of the agenda of some governments, to the spread of misinformation placed by many media and public figures in the last decade. Decisions of governments, cities and other public entities do not have to be repressive, they may also stimulate bitcoin payments through infrastructure improvements or tax-free transactions. For example, if you enable bitcoin payments on a certain destination, the news spreads as very interesting, achieving two goals – a good way of promotion and attracting investors. Some will use bitcoin to buy museum tickets, others will start a business in an environment as such.

Unlike the trend that was common when bitcoin has just been created, the majority of today’s owners are not only enthusiasts who buy it to pay for a video game, students and, in general, the younger population of lower purchasing power, as it is now owned also by wealthy investors who have the opportunity to spend money in this way. An example that might illustrate former spirit of buying bitcoin, that shows how much everything has changed so far is the event in May 2010 when one owner of a larger quantity of bitcoin decided to order two pizzas in a restaurant in Florida that offered charging in this digital currency. Bitcoin was so cheap at the time that he paid the $25 bill, with 10,000 digital coins, whose dollar equivalent then totaled $41, giving the “tip”.

One may wonder how much the wealth of those who then bought about 400 bitcoins for one dollar was worth today. If there are still such examples then they are extremely rare, because the only thing that could make you wouldn’t decide to sell your coins for so long is to forget the password or have the device on which you installed your e-wallet unavailable for so long and functional all the time. Many sold it when the price rose from $250 to $1,000 in less than a year, convinced that they had made a perfect decision, as it seemed so. The previous year has shown how dynamically the price of this cryptocurrency can rise in situations when people around the world are losing confidence in other market assets where the value collapsed quickly due to the pandemic. First, the consequences of the crisis were very visible, and then trust was renewed, especially in the last quarter of 2020.

Impact of the COVID-19 crisis

After reaching the $19,000 threshold in 2017, the global climate was not particularly favorable to investing in bitcoin, because after the last recovery of almost all major markets from the effects of the global economic crisis at the end of the first decade of this century, the world finally turned to more relaxed spending. The previous year completely reversed the perception of spending and savings, so the world went back to bitcoin again.

More dynamic value growth began in October 2020 when online payment service PayPal announced it would integrate bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies so that they could be used in transactions, first in the US and then in the European market this year. It is a company with more than 360 million users worldwide, who will have the opportunity to have cryptocurrencies in their PayPal e-wallets. This has greatly helped the public to become familiar with the characteristics and role of bitcoin, as PayPal’s announcement actually illustrated how bitcoin is used to pay, not just to make money on the value change.

On the other hand, when they realized that it would be necessary to address the economic consequences of the pandemic, the European Central Bank, the Bank of England and the Federal Reserve began a new phase of expansionary policy that pushed very low interest rates to even lower or they even became negative. This meant that investors would have to discover that part of the usual investment activities would not only be unprofitable, but create an additional cost, which made it necessary to move capital to what would at least temporarily keep its value.

The best is yet to come

All this is just the beginning of a significant interest in bitcoin from the general public, as traditional investors will only start moving their capital into this area in the way they used to reallocate it in gold. After the expansionary policy of central banks was added to the effect created by PayPal in this market, any possibility of returning to the traditional market of government bonds or fixed income assets was literally erased.

In other words, the entry of such investors into bitcoin trading has enabled it to be not only a way to make money on the price difference, but also an instrument for medium or long-term storage of value. The policies of the leading central banks to be implemented this year will make the currencies they manage worth less in order to stimulate exports. In such conditions, anyone who has more capital does not want to keep it in one of the currencies whose value will fall, therefore they relocate it to a safe haven, as gold used to be, in something that will bring additional earning opportunities.

The question that arises is what would happen if all the capital that turns into bitcoin today was abruptly withdrawn towards some other forms of investment. The probability of such a thing happening is extremely small, because this is the trend that guarantees the growth of the price of bitcoin. Not only will that growth sometimes be slowed down, but it will not be constant either. However, that will not eliminate the possibility of continued growth. Funds drawn from such roles in any existing option could not be regenerated so quickly, which is why such intentions would be lacking, as such moves would be unprofitable until a new fintech revolution occurs in the market, and this has only just begun.

21. The Exchange Rate Fundamentally Depends on the Balance of Payments

Posted on by Ana Nives Radovic

Electronic money maintains a strong connection with traditional money, as both are articulated in the same unit of account and are pledged on an asset. In contrast, Bitcoin relies solely on an agreement between its users, without a legal framework drawn up by any centralized body.

Furthermore, its users are the sole players in the virtual currency, creating a situation that is the opposite of traditional currencies. In this case, it is informal, challenging the formal structure of central banks. It’s noteworthy that this type of currency is not subject to any financial institution. Financial institutions are expected to act as intermediaries in information gathering, risk management, and liquidity. It is highly unlikely that this type of currency will fit into this traditional financial circuit.

This economic perspective examines a new phenomenon in the world of money, that of digital currencies such as Bitcoin. The use of these currencies, for the time being, remains very marginal and limited to basic transactions. However, some see a much greater potential and invest heavily in them. In our system, a boost in the exchange rate means that the currency appreciates. Evidently, exchange rate convenience should also be assessed in relation to inflation. If the exchange rate rises, but prices in the other country have also risen, it may be that the overseas purchasing power of our currency remains unchanged or even worse, which is the situation with the actual exchange rate.

Since the relationship of trust requires at least two individuals, and with currencies where the sender is not known, it is a safe bet that one is closer to money laundering than to procedural confidence based just on the currency itself. However, a huge gap separates them from fiat currencies because they are not supported by governments and central banks. The absence of a regulatory framework and regulatory mechanisms is very challenging, and individuals interested in purchasing these new currencies must, for that reason, remain careful and be aware of the inherent risks.

The exchange rate is determined by the acquisition of demand and supply of currency in the foreign exchange market, called Forex. The demand and offer of a currency are due to the exchange rate from a foreign currency to international trade. In this regard, there is an expectation that Bitcoin would evolve in a way that allows users to determine an exchange rate and truly be a currency, even though traditional currencies serve the three functions. In that regard, there is confidence in the unit of account, a value and savings reserve, and a protocol instrument.

While considering this, it should be noted that the price of Bitcoin is very volatile. When comparing this component with fiat currencies, it is the stability of exchange and inflation rate that generates confidence among investors. Additionally, with no intermediary financial mediations, this function is not sufficiently respected because of the lack of guarantee of deposits. This raises the question of whether it is reasonable to consider Bitcoin or any other cryptocurrency a safe haven, as there is no guarantee for its value. However, regardless of the smaller volatility of other currencies and commodities, the level of safety of transactions is higher than within traditional monetary transactions.

The exchange rate fundamentally depends on the balance of payments of a country, and primarily derives from two key factors: trade and financial investments. In the first case, it encompasses imports and exports of goods, including tourism from one country to another. Regarding the latter, it involves activities such as the purchase of foreign treasury bills, as this amount of exchange is linked principally to the level of interest rates that engage capital for good returns.

An aggregation of cryptocurrencies was established in the channel of Bitcoin, but the major principles remain the same. The creators of other cryptocurrencies tend to advocate the fact that their network is less inconvenient to support, transactions are done much faster, and the reward in terms of new currencies created is more beneficial. Some count on a faster or longer expansion of the money supply, though in that case, the difference has no effect on the purchasing power at the certain moment regarding these cryptocurrencies. Even riskier exchange rate transactions, such as currency purchase and sale transactions with the aspiration only to make a profit from the change in exchange rates over time, affect the value. Depending on the situation, monetary authorities may choose to let the exchange rate openly follow the forces of demand and supply, or they may prefer not to diverge from a certain value.

It should be noted that cryptocurrencies are one of the main restraints in the fight against piracy. To overcome the financing of pirate sites, corporations have signed agreements with electronic payment companies, such as Visa, MasterCard, American Express, PayPal, and Skrill, to ensure that illegal actions cannot be financed. This is declared through agreements between monetary authorities that advance the international monetary system.

Regarding this, the real problem is more in the misgiving of a particular currency, especially in those that lose the status of a safe haven they used to have, than in confidence in cryptocurrencies. This is evidenced by the increasing download of Bitcoin, returning the problem to national currencies and their particular monetary systems and central bank policies. Unlike Bitcoin, the derivation of national currencies is centralized, and in most countries, this role rests with a central bank.

The growth of the amount of assets is not fixed, so the choice to increase or decrease the supply of money depends on the objectives traced by the entity that issues money. In this area, traditional currencies have several advantages, since a banknote is not decomposable by itself. However, a central bank system favors inflation over the long term, continually degrading the value of the state currency.

There could be some doubts regarding the ability of central banks to make good decisions, as in most industrialized countries, central banks maintain a low and stable rate of inflation, ensuring the maintenance of the value of the currency. It must be admitted that this system works very well when one looks at the low-price increase over the past two decades.

This article is part of the academic publication Dividing by Zero by Ana Nives Radovic, Global Knowledge 2018

19. Value Justified by Usefulness and Scarcity

Posted on by Ana Nives Radovic

Central banks are able to influence the foundation of money throughout the refinancing rate, but also by calling commercial banks to place an assured number of deposits accumulated from the community on the account that banks of the central bank in forms of reserves.

For example, the European Central Bank is autonomous of the countries from which, according to the Treaties of the EU, it cannot even receive simple advice. This is what is called the independent central bank’s doctrine. Banknotes issued by the ECB and the national central banks are the only banknotes with legal fond in the European Union. Central banks worldwide use these operations to carry out mandates reflecting economic objectives for the central financial institution.

For example, the ECB has the main goal of maintaining the inflation rate close to 2% on an annual basis through the most favorable distribution of resources and growth, while the aim of the Federal Reserve in the US is to have reasonable inflation targets to support growth and employment rates. The autonomy of these financial institutions is also supposed to ensure avoiding the infidelity of political assessment to give attention to producing a conventional and coherent economic framework, according to the formula that favors rules over the discretion right to take some action. In this framework, a variety of constraints imposed by the traditional monetary foundation path may come into view as a commotion, which explains why even financial institutions are trying to test alternative models of money creation, as well as new means of payment.

A sharp growth in the price of bitcoin from the beginning of 2017 indicates that interest in bitcoin constantly increases. It is often emphasized that the uneven changes in the value of bitcoins on a daily, weekly, or monthly basis are not conditioned by guaranteeing profits to investors, as is the case with global currencies, precious metals, oil, or any other stock exchange goods whose change, except for the level of supply and demand, is dictated by economic and political developments in the countries that use them as a means of payment or trade them. The majority of those investors point out that bitcoin does not have value, stating it to deter investment in cryptocurrencies.

The incorrectness of this assertion is quite easy to prove. Although there is no equal sign between value and price, the fact that one purchases bitcoin for an amount of assets denies this claim itself. What further points to the steady value of cryptocurrencies is that even if the market turmoil and efforts of financial centers to destroy its price were so low that there would be no denomination banknotes, world currency, which could be made without a decimal number, and its value would still exist. This is confirmed by two factors, where the first one is usefulness, and the second one is scarcity. If we illustrate this using the example of clean air, we will understand that it has value because it is useful, although it is abundant, which is why it does not pay. However, if, due to any pollution, it was preserved only in separate rooms, its price would depend on the willingness to pay to join those who want to breathe through their lungs.

As the most significant digital currency, bitcoin, since its very first days, has been compared with national currencies, although it works on completely different principles. Several things that bitcoin and national currencies have in common are not a typical cross-section for only these two categories but for anything that exists on any type of market, where its value has the possibility of being changed.

This article is part of the academic publication Dividing by Zero by Ana Nives Radovic, Global Knowledge 2018

18. A Great Turnaround in the Financial World

Posted on by Ana Nives Radovic

One of the main reasons why Bitcoin was created is the dissatisfaction and distrust in the existing financial system where monetary creation is principally offered by commercial banks in their lending business. Accepting their disposal means of payment against the institution that declares these agents, credit bodies, generate new liquidity in accordance with the requirements of the financial system and market as a whole. One of the most important purposes of each central bank is to control the inflation rate, while make the circulation of money easier and helping investments to expand.

Quite the opposite, deflation is seen as a risk by economists because money creation accompanies growth. The total fixed volume of 21 million was the main reason why Bitcoin was subjected to criticism. In fact, this ceiling reflects its creators’ doubt of the quantitative easing programs that the central financial institution of the United States, the Federal Reserve, started to practice after 2008. However, this restraint also leads the Bitcoin system to have a potential deflationary outcome.

The times after the world economic crisis were characterized by a strong expansion of investment that aggregated the need for a higher level of security of transactions between agents. On the other hand, the crisis generally led to a retrenchment of credit activities because consumers cut their expenditures and real estate buying, while the business sector postponed their investments by choosing to set out of their supplies. Since banking is not automatically balanced on a day-to-day basis, a particular money market was created where banks lend to each other to resolve the problem of a lack of short-term liquidity. They can also call the central bank, which embraces the advantage of money creation and establishes the monetary base by issuing banknotes to grant liquidity to commercial banks, guaranteeing price stability and promoting the security and effectiveness of the payment system.

The possibility for these banks to be refinanced via the mechanisms that institutions of the countries where they operate have established opportunities to manipulate the activities in order to create the need for monetary creation, as commercial banks pay a price for liquidity supply. Central banks could thus buy or extract a repurchase of particular financial securities held by commercial banks against the provision of liquidity.

Bitcoin came into the primary focus of global media when the financial crisis in Cyprus occurred and caused one of the biggest concerns about the future of the European single currency. Worries about the future of the euro caused Bitcoin to triple its value in less than a month, reaching the price of $141 for the first time in the first days of April 2013. This was one of the most visible examples of how a search for an alternative is shifting the demand of investors who are willing to take new market challenges, looking for more security at the same time.

The fact that the financial world has been witnessing a great turnaround, which was at that time largely represented the exception, not the rule, has led to the occurrence of Bitcoin being backed with fierce confrontation. This type of confrontation was seen because the unpredictability of Bitcoin’s price can be reviewed as a lack of knowledge about the questionable reliability of decentralized governance. It is difficult to rely solely on efficient credit control without the support of the governmental plan and central banks’ monetary policies. Numerous studies on the supremacy of common goods, open-source assumptions, and a certain sort of what some called digital collectivism have shown that the fact that this group of enthusiasts has no centralized organizational control does not necessarily mean that the whole system is expected to be reduced to disorder.

The refinancing rates that act as the prices at which central banks allow the credit money usage represent the main structure of the money market, and when those rates are high, the demand for liquidity by the banks is low. This reflects on the interest rates of the credits that banks offer to their clients, creating a liquidity shortage since many individuals or businesses are not able to have access to this money. This causes dissatisfaction, as the trend is present everywhere, and not a single bank can offer something that differentiates completely from the rest of the financial sector. In those terms, having a decentralized system is something that causes Bitcoin’s key advantage, regardless of how exposed this cryptocurrency is to peripheral shocks because of the lack of a centralized regulation system.

Particular occurrences, such as cyber-attacks, errors in cryptograms, regulatory transformations, transaction volumes, and dysfunctions of keys, may have an impact on the value of Bitcoin. Though the margin of arbitrage gives rise to financial assumptions, which additionally makes the circumstances more complex, and therefore Bitcoin cannot serve as a means to determine value, which, on the other hand, is a crucial characteristic of traditional money.

This article is part of the academic publication Dividing by Zero by Ana Nives Radovic, Global Knowledge 2018

17. The Impact of the Virtual Money Mechanisms on Total Cash Flow

Posted on by Ana Nives Radovic

Currency wars are one of the reasons why the capital of many subjects directed towards investment in those assets in which the chances of manipulation kept to a minimum. Through a review of the relationship of trust in cryptocurrencies, as well as trust in institutions in this work is estimated what impact will the mechanisms on which is based the virtual money have on total cash flow in the future and what kind of perspective of bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies.

The electronic currency bitcoin is gaining popularity, although for a long time, most economists around the world did not give it importance until its value started its dizzying growth. There are three key reasons why bitcoin gained popularity in a short period: 1) simplicity in transferring value; 2) the ability to perform microtransactions; and 3) growing trust in decentralized systems.

Simplicity in transferring value was recognized as one of the main achievements of digital money. In the history of human relations, changes in the way of material exchange determined the transition to a new level of civilization. After the multifaceted exchange of goods for goods became more orderly with the emergence of certain units of measure of equal value, there was a need for such a system to be simplified to provide more precision and clarity among trading parties.

Also, since goods were often perishable, it was necessary to establish what could be a value guard. Due to its limitations, the price and scarcity of gold could not play this role for a long time, resulting in the emergence of money for the development of the culture of Phoenicians, where all goods could be paid. As with most types of money, bitcoin, as digital money, is also characterized by the change in its value.

The value of bitcoin changes on a daily and even hourly basis. However, the advantage of bitcoin is the possibility to have microtransactions, especially with online payment services that cost less than the smallest unit of a currency.

For example, if a site owner wants to charge for access to content, counting on the number of visits, it is much easier to calculate these values in bitcoin than in traditional money, especially for services priced at one or two cents. The difference between one and two cents is still double in traditional currencies. With bitcoin, the price may be expressed in as many decimals as necessary to meet the most precise measurements. While these differences may be negligible at the individual level, when multiplied by thousands or millions on a daily or annual basis, the variations in earnings are enormous. Additionally, there are no transaction costs, such as those in electronic banking, to enable intermediary earnings from commissions.

This article is part of the academic publication Dividing by Zero by Ana Nives Radovic, Global Knowledge 2018

16. The Need for Encryption Created a New Way of Living

Posted on by Ana Nives Radovic

The name of the most common cryptocurrency, Bitcoin, also refers to the protocol describing this virtual money and its implementation in the payment system. This cryptocurrency is decentralized and anyone who wishes can join the network by installing the software.

The generally accepted theory regarding the origin and formation of Bitcoin is that it was created in 2009 by one or more crypto programmers using the pseudonym Satoshi Nakamoto, although the preconditions for the development of this technology were created decades ago. The history of work on technology that created the base for cryptocurrency development has a four-decade-long history since the first RSA encryption that used a public key to encrypt confidential data and a private key to decrypt them was used in 1977.

The following years were characterized by the development of the mechanism of compression that was used to securely and efficiently store and verify a large volume of data that is today used by the Bitcoin protocol. At this phase of the late 1970s, the system for calculating all transactions contained in a data block was established. Later in the 1990s, the programming industry witnessed a wide range of research related to cryptographic protocols that represented the foundation for the development of electronic currencies that were centralized and proprietary.

An article written by mathematicians and digital money enthusiasts Stuart Haber and W. Scott Stornetta, entitled “How to Time-stamp a Digital Document,” announced the key principles of what would later be a platform on which Bitcoin works. This article was later quoted by the author signed as Satoshi Nakamoto in his white paper where the principles of blockchain were explained.

A very significant turning point in the development of the transaction protocol occurred in 1994 when a computer engineer and a researcher in cryptography, Nick Szabo, advanced the idea of a “smart contract,” which represented the computer transaction protocol that executes the terms of a contract. During the following decade, Szabo was working on the uprising of the project called BitGold, conceived as a decentralized digital currency based on chains of proofs of application and using countless elements that later were shown as the groundwork of Bitcoin, such as timestamping, digital signatures, and public keys. At the first stage of the development, it proved to be vulnerable to attacks, while later there were many efforts made to overcome this problem.

Later in 1997, the invention of Hashcash by Adam Back represented the proof that this system could work, justifying further research and development in this area. In fact, this idea had already been explored by Cynthia Dwork and Moni Naor in a report entitled “Pricing via Processing or Combating Junk Mail” published in 1993, but Adam Back had no information about their achievements in this area. At that time, Szabo described the possibilities offered by the advance of new technologies in an article entitled “Formalizing and Securing Relationships on Public Networks.” Consequently, many contracts can be implemented without difficulty if the possessions that represent the subject to the contract include a computer code guaranteeing the implementation of the contract provisions.

The next big step was the first peer-to-peer distribution via a transfer platform called Gnutella, developed in 2000 by Tom Pepper and Justin Frankel. From the economic approach, it is a classified currency that is not issued by any banking institution nor linked to a currency settlement. Also, it is not commodity money, nor a fiat currency, given that it has no required price.

However, the development of technology enabled Bitcoin to have particular elements of trading instruments, even though it does not share key characteristics with them. In that sense, there are similarities with fiat currencies although cryptocurrencies are not backed by a material asset, since it has value only because economic actors agree to use it and since the internet makes trade between them achievable. It is more leaning on the monetary exchange function than to that of a store of value, even if its deflationary character can hypothetically lead to it.

The first public announcement of Bitcoin occurred in 2008, opening the space for the first blockchain to be at the beginning of 2009. At that time, a reward for finding a block was 50 bitcoin and is divided by two every 210,000 blocks, which is scheduled to happen every four years. Since December 2012, the return is 25 bitcoin, and according to that division process, the year 2140 will be the one when no return will be provided, while the number of bitcoin will have reached a maximum of 21 million.

The rationalization of the nature of Bitcoin transactions can begin from the straightforward paradigm of the contract of sale. The smart contract would guarantee that when the seller broadcasts their possessions, the other party, in fact, receives the corresponding amount in exchange, and, on the other hand, the buyer who pays the price is guaranteed to receive the goods. In the earliest stage, Bitcoin was created by a closed community of enthusiasts that used it for internal practice. It is likely to state that they were then used for all intents and purposes as elements of an allegation of an identity based on a vision that was contrary to accepted belief of the world in reaction against the establishment.

To illustrate the value of the smart contract mechanism, Szabo used a simple example, a car rental contract. Under this contract, one pays customary sums to use the car owned by a certain rent-a-car company. In this case, the smart contract will routinely test out at each due date whether the amount owed is well paid by the renter of the car.

Provided that the imbursement is made, the renter will be the only individual allowed to use the car thanks to the process of authentication. In the event of non-payment, the car is automatically blocked and cannot be used by the tenant, and the renter regains control. The first order, first to generate bitcoins, then as anticipated, but only at one remove, to seize them, was consequently linked to what they served to demonstrate or transmit a certain way of existence and an assured way of seeing the situation.

Fundamentally, Bitcoin was not very diverse from what one finds in the world of fine arts since, for their enthusiasts, it represented a way of living and demonstrating its distinction

This article is part of the academic publication Dividing by Zero by Ana Nives Radovic, Global Knowledge 2018

15. Overseeing the Ultimate Impact on the Principles of Real Growth

Posted on by Ana Nives Radovic

There is a belief that negative interest rates only concern banks, which perceive their deposits with the ECB not rewarded but commissioned up to an annual interest rate that is still under zero percent. In reality, there is not a single entity that could borrow from their bank at rates below zero.

Repaying less than the totality of the borrowed capital is not allowed at any point in the financial system. When one borrows 100, one has to pay 100, plus interest, which is the reason why even loans with a reference rate beneath zero do not see their charges decrease.

However, there is another perception of this issue where, instead of seeing interest rates decrease as an instrument that a growing number of central banks use to recover temporary global demand, they consider zero rates, and especially the postponement of the negative interest rate area, not only as the symptom but also the symbol of growth at the level of the world economy with enormous financial and monetary disproportions of unparalleled strength. These imbalances are basically a direct consequence of the regulatory strategy choices made after the economic crisis by the major central banks, initiated by the Fed.

This perception of zero rates comprises the belief that they are not a tool that would appear in the files of the central bankers, but an apprehension sign that indicates that the circumstances, both in developed and in emerging countries, are now reaching an alarming edge that is even more sincere than right before the last financial crash. This viewpoint is followed by an unbending disapproval, even though it was articulated in very cautious standings of the outlines of studies, as well as in contemporary responses of central banks to current issues. The key problem is not whether these reproductions are theoretically acceptable or not but that they have fundamentally been calculated before the actual expansion of globalization. Therefore, their position of accounting remains principally that of state economies, while the actual financial and monetary subjects, even of relatively not large size, are nowadays occupied in a day-to-day situation of interventions without limitations.

Fundamentally, they are not considered to entirely assimilate and account for how international refinancing streams are now taking a key position in the broadcast of financial compulsions, particularly those produced by the decisions of the most important central banks in the world, as is the case with the spread of the bubble economy to emerging countries through the quantitative easing strategy and the extremely threatening counterattack that generates its closure. In fact, they represent primarily temporary reproductions that disregard the central position of what was perceived as standard. More precisely, they lead to not seeing their ultimate impact on the principles of real growth. In that case, a continued practice of the zero-rate policy leads to a progression of misrepresenting inducements that reduce productivity increase.

From this standpoint, each rise in the US inflation rate over the past several years is only a minor feature in comparison to the real intimidation that includes the detonation of global debt, the simplification of policies, the extension of the increase leverage rates, as well as the strengthening of the currency war powered by the development of quantitative easing procedures. There is a common explanation of this situation that refers to the typical connection giving which rates drop or rise in action, bearing in mind an increase in inflation that gives rise to an opposite system with the persistence to accept as true that it is the decrease in the particular rate that will allow inflation to rise. Actually, this leads to the lowest level of the inflation rate with conjunction in the direction of a deflationary negative balance that the central bank wants to evade anyway.

This type of explanation would be connected to the intensification of the scarcity of securities, which appears as an automatic consequence of the crisis, but also because of the quantitative easing policy. It would have the consequence that the actual interest rate of money with fixed yields, which means the one subtracted from the nominal rate of the bond after withdrawing the inflation rate, now includes liquidity, whose outcome, for a given nominal rate goal, is to diverge the interest rate while at the same time the inflation rate moves in the opposite way from this premium change of the value.

This article is part of the academic publication Dividing by Zero by Ana Nives Radovic, Global Knowledge 2018

12. Crossing All Barriers between Nations, Policies and Cultures

Posted on by Ana Nives Radovic

Bitcoin is the most common, the first decentralized and the most valuable digital currency that represents a means of payment on the internet outside the control of any financial, national or international institution, or a single company from any industry. Each relocation from one collection to another is recorded in the cryptogram of bitcoin so that the recorded history of all transactions makes it achievable to launch clearly.

What differentiates bitcoin from national currencies is its independence from any central authority that controls trade, but on a participatory functioning of all users. It is difficult to find a currency in our history that has already been free from political influence or national economy. Bitcoin is a universal currency that is even accessible to the population that does not use banking services, which is seen as the key potential of its development, considering the large number of people who do not have bank accounts or are willing to find some type of alternative for it.

Unlike regular currencies, bitcoin crosses all the barriers between nations, policies, and cultures. Its position on the market and its features show that it could be characterized as a libertarian currency based on open source and decentralized software. It has no legal framework, unlike other subjects of the monetary system, since it has no legal tender, though it may be refused by a trader.

Bitcoin transactions take place on its fundamental technology, the blockchain, which represents a distributed public database that contains a record of all exchanges since its initiation and is an innovative technology to make its functioning confident all the way through the world, holding a key function in transparency of the exchange. Bitcoin is accepted as a means of payment by a growing number of online and physical traders.

The technological and methodological features of bitcoin do not relate to any central currency issuer; currency managing is extended over every part of the network. The proper functioning of the system relies exclusively on cryptographic techniques, and anyone can generate money at the price of a resulting utilization of a time machine. The creation of bitcoin takes place via the process called mining. Mining is essentially a distributed system of compromises used to authenticate expected transactions by counting them in the blockchain platform, maintaining a chronological order in the system, protecting impartiality of the network, and permitting other computers to be in agreement on system status.

In order to be confirmed, transactions must be enclosed in a block that follows very strict cryptographic rules that will be verified by the network. These rules also take account of the creation of the comparable game of chance that puts a stop to anyone from simply adding new blocks successively into the blockchain. Mining is the track of action by which bitcoin transactions are protected, and for this purpose, the miners accomplish mathematical calculations for their bitcoin network with their computer equipment.

The hash of a block must be smaller than an assured value, and in order to accomplish this, miners must discover and insert the block keeping the hash small enough. The miners perform cryptographic hashes on what is called a block header, and for each new hash, the mining software uses a different random number. The only possible way to discover it is to find one that suits, which requires a lot of CPU work. This is actually the key to the groundbreaking aspect of the bitcoin system, since this verification of work causes all those found spots to vote with their CPU, and it is complicated for a single entity that would want to take advantage of to do so.

These procedures prevent everyone from having control over what is incorporated in the blockchain, as well as from replacing parts so that it can pull through. Instead of that, bitcoin permits each individual to firmly accumulate and switch over value on a network that cannot be detained, influenced, or blocked by any institution or individual.

When an operation is completed, the user can also give a small amount to miners to encourage them to take the transaction into account, which means that the transactions are not without charge, but that the transaction costs are insignificant. The aim of miners is to distribute a block, and they have an interest in finding a block in the course of the return they are allowed to give themselves.

It should first be noted that there is only one method for creating bitcoins that belongs to an algorithm, which is to say to a deterministic computer process. The money supply is generated by the computing power of the network computers, by correlation with the mining process, and the increase in the number of flow bitcoins is known in advance. At the same time, giving free access to powerful tools plays a significant role in protecting individual privileges and autonomy.

In this regard, bitcoin has many advantages that are increasingly creating a center of attention for many users and investors, first of all, because there are no exchange fees, while the transaction costs are much smaller in comparison to the traditional monetary system. Besides that, users are anonymous, while their transactions are public, observable and made in a way that, once recorded, they cannot be interfered with or changed.

Since bitcoin is not regulated by any central authority and the offer of bitcoin is fixed in advance, totaled at 21 million, there is no guiding principle or inflationary heaviness that is one of the key problems regarding traditional currencies. A single bitcoin can be divided up to 100 millionths, and since the volume of bitcoins that are currently in circulation exceeds 10 million units, according to Brito et al, it is expected to reach the limit of 21 million by 2140.

The monetary swiftness of bitcoin identifies itself in advance and operates through the mining process. These are the features that prevent any type of inflation from occurring since, by structure, the upper limit of bitcoin will not exceed the amount of 21 million, being, at the same time, also characterized by an outsized divisibility of bitcoin, even though so far it is applied for up to 8 or 10, but theoretically it is infinite.

Bitcoin offers a remarkable list of security-related appearances since the protocol is also designed to be very opposed to a wide range of hacking attacks, including attempts such as distributed denial-of-service. Users are also allowed to broadcast their credit card number over the internet, and what many users see as the key benefit of bitcoin usage is the fact that the transactions are both secret when it comes to their privacy, as well as completely public when it comes to the transparency of the process.

In other words, not a single name or other data that in any way could reveal the identity of the user appears in transactions, nevertheless, their numeric addresses are broadcasted and stored by all parts of the network. The blockchain is itself formed by a series of blocks, where each block traces the newest transactions that have not yet been validated and recorded in the preceding blocks, protected by the innovative types of technology.

The condition of every user’s account is open and it results from all the transactions that are connected with this process. The confirmation of the operation is not a matter of any central entity, but by the other nodes of the network, while the addresses are alphanumeric chains of approximately 30 characters. Each transaction is accumulated in a special register called blockchain, which is helpful in authenticating the whole procedure to complete it successfully, so that the transiting assessment was essentially owned before being finally deposited. Once the process is confirmed by the network, this block is added to the blockchain and consequently, it spreads the information.

Bitcoin can be used in transactions to buy goods and services both on online shopping sites and in physical stores that accept this currency. To make a payment with bitcoin, the buyer is supposed to have an electronic wallet via one of the available software services installed on their computer that uses an application installed on their mobile device and to go to a websit

This article is part of the academic publication Dividing by Zero by Ana Nives Radovic, Global Knowledge 2018

11. The Latest Rise in the Price of Gold – a New Cause for Concern

Posted on by Ana Nives Radovic

While the price of gold continues to rise it is a sign that financial resources should be turned into gold, opening the question about the latest causes of this phenomenon and whether gold really still has the status of a “safe haven” investment.

This month’s trading on the global financial market was under the impact of the President of the United States, Donald Trump, who dismissed the director of the FBI. An ongoing investigation could lead to the opening of an exclusion procedure. This unavoidably had an impact on the value of the American dollar, moving investors to other assets.

On the other side of the Atlantic, the start of the monetary downturn from the European Central Bank, their decision not to add 80 billion euros every month but to reduce it to 60 billion monthly. The expectation that this situation will not be something that the banks in the Eurozone will be willing to accustom easily tempted a bigger awareness of the stock market, which so far has been pulled up mostly by banking shares.

Both of these situations have caused the rise in the price of gold. Besides that, two big countries, Russia and China, are the leading global importers of this precious metal and they are making efforts to arrange a new global financial system that is supposed to be completely autonomous and detached from the dollar.

The first half of 2017 was marked by several serious political events, including some of the most critical elections in the Netherlands and France. There are odds-on chances that the financial world is relatively distressed with the apparent outcome of a renewed demand for safe assets, where gold takes first place.

Another thing is that since 2015, the Chinese yuan is incorporated into its official reserves of the Central Bank of Russia, announced for the first time to have integrated, which until that time consisted of 44 percent of dollars, 42 percent euros, and a bit more than nine percent of pounds sterling.

At this time, China and Russia are increasing their gold reserves considerably, making an allowance for a progressively strict way of monetizing gold as the foremost mechanism of trade arrangement, particularly through their currencies now held up by gold and also within the structure of an exchange system analogous to that of the rest of the world still locked by a declining dollar.

Last year at the same time, demand for gold, supported by purchases of exchange-traded funds, was exceptional. With the uncertainties generated by the prospect of a possible Brexit, investors had massively taken refuge in the gold contracts during the first quarter of 2016.

Global gold demand continued to grow in the second quarter of 2016, marked by the deepening crisis with Brexit and worsening geopolitical factors by 15 percent. Demand for gold reached 1,290 tons in the first quarter of 2016, an increase of 21 percent compared to the first quarter of 2015, making it the second-largest quarter in terms of demand.

The price of gold has even augmented by 25 percent in this first half of the year, which represents its highest performance for more than 35 years, while on a twelve-monthly basis, global demand for gold fell by 18 percent, a plunge to be put into perspective given the exceptional demand last year, evoking that the first three months of 2016 correspond to the strongest first quarter ever in terms of demand. Gold demand, with a total of 1064 tons, reached a new record in the first half of 2016, surpassing the previous peak by 16 percent in 2009 that was present in the peak of the global financial crisis.

When it comes to the strongest political impacts on the global financial market, it was the election of Trump that pushed investors into a short-lived optimism. Regardless of the prospect of a stronger dollar and a rise in U.S. interest rates, there is still vagueness at the global level today, both economically and geopolitically.

Central banks remained strong buyers, buying 109 tons in the first quarter, while the supply increased by five percent. This increase was fueled by a massive influx of 364 tons of gold-traded funds, reflecting a huge escape from currencies into gold, since market participants are concerned about the global economy. Also, investment was the largest component of the demand for gold for two consecutive quarters.

There are two possible outcomes of the current situation, where the first one is reaching the global agreement to maintain the dollar’s status as the world currency, while the other one is related to manipulation with the price of gold. The global agreement is related to upholding the value of the dollar. Since the macroeconomic data of the United States are showing a decline from quarter to quarter, the dollar is no longer used as much in everyday life around the world. The central financial institution in the U.S. Federal Reserve continues the trend of printing money, opening the space for the deficit that became unmanageable. This made investors recognize that they have to look for alternatives to the green currency.

On the other hand, finding alternatives is not something that banks cannot practice. In this regard, the setback comes from the investment banks, creators of the gold and silver markets and its agents, which are looking for a particular advantage at the cost of investors, as it was the situation in the past. This is obtainable by spreading panic and transferring funds to others so they can take advantage of the upbeat period until the next similar occasion.

As this has happened several times during the past decades, those were the emerging countries, in particular China and Russia, that have benefited from buying gold at artificially low prices, expressed by all these manipulations, which explains the shortage of this precious metal, particularly because Chinese buyers do not return it to the market.

At the same time, it is Germany that does not consider publicly the fact that its gold is stored in the United States could be sold and therefore there is no asking for its repatriation. This is why this enthusiastic phase would last for a certain time based on the correction where the potential is considerable for the emerging countries to make further movements to not be allied to the dollar.

This article is part of the academic publication Dividing by Zero by Ana Nives Radovic, Global Knowledge 2018

8. Medium of Exchange Rather than the Tool for Value Accumulation

Posted on by Ana Nives Radovic

Explaining the meaning and the purpose of the digital currency bitcoin has led to defining its level in comparison with the existing monetary system or the position of leading central banks, where many people think that a country is sovereign and that if it has contracted a debt in a currency, it is free to reimburse it in another country it chooses.

Since Bitcoin was not created by banks, it does not depend on any state, and it is also not linked to any specific currency. Therefore, it is not tied to a specific central bank. Bitcoin is interchangeable with dollars, euros, or any other major currency. From an economic standpoint, it is classified as a currency that is not issued by a bank and is not linked to a currency agreement. Besides that, it does not have a monetary policy.

If we consider a currency such as the euro as a reward without fundamental value, whose procedure is imposed on its users, there is an open question about what digital currency actually is and what it is used for. The easiest way to explain it is to observe the euro as a coupon in the monetary sector in which the euro has legal tender. A banknote is a holder’s declaration valid in any country where it is in the payment system, and it represents a means of payment without inherent value, valid in a large geographical area.

Bitcoin is not a commodity money, nor a fiat currency since it has no required price. Its shares are not backed by a material asset, as it has value only because economic actors agree to use it in cases where the internet facilitates exchanges between them. There is no need for great thoughts to look forward to the effects of such guidelines. It is oriented more toward the monetary exchange purpose than to be a tool for accumulating value, even though its deflationary character can theoretically lead to that.

While alternative currency applications are generally distinct by very strong constructivism or by the necessity of force to enforce a new conception, Bitcoin is merely an individual project that aims to rise above private initiatives. A restricted amount of a valuable supply whose worth cannot be affected by state assessments shows that this is an example of something that can be called digital gold because the volume of the user base is increasing, which shows the way to a price increase.

Besides that, the profile of buyers is widening too, so it is no longer reserved only for experts in the digital world, assuring users of the rapidity of transfers and the safety of the new currency. As a result, Bitcoin sustained its growth to the point of declaring itself as the financial asset with the best annual performance in all currencies during 2016. Bitcoin reacts like an asylum since younger generations do not believe in gold as their parents do, and in emerging markets, in particular, this cryptocurrency becomes the investment to refer to, whereas it is much easier to use than gold.

This digital currency is resistant to money laundering, which is the catching disease of a growing number of central banks. The reason for its immunity to this is written in its algorithm of operation (not modifiable) that there will never be more than 21 million bitcoins in circulation. Some of them have already earned enormous gains, while we continue to settle for a few percent per year. As one can imagine, such an increase has made some people extremely wealthy, but for once, it was not a handful of bankers. The funds could be generated to start a new businesses and help others in the transition to this new form of savings and banking.

This article is part of the academic publication Dividing by Zero by Ana Nives Radovic, Global Knowledge 2018

5. Understanding Blockchain: The Main Objective and the Initial Challenges

Posted on by Ana Nives Radovic

Blockchain and FinTech play a central part in the digital revolution that shakes the world of banks, insurance companies, and more financial markets in general, therefore it is the reason why a new arrangement will allow the revision of the positive law to empower the issuance and the conduction of certain non-admitted financial securities to the operations of a central securities custodian by using this platform.

Blockchain and FinTech play a central part in the digital revolution that shakes the world of banks, insurance companies, and more financial markets in general. Therefore, it is the reason why a new arrangement will allow the revision of the positive law to empower the issuance and the conduction of certain non-admitted financial securities to the operations of a central securities custodian by using this platform.

To grasp the extent of the FinTech and blockchain revolution, it’s essential to recognize the rapid advancement of hi-tech innovation. This includes a growing emphasis on improved connectivity with related factors such as regulations and their enforcement, shifts in banking practices, and heightened competition from agile FinTech start-ups. These startups leverage their swiftness to exert a significant influence on the conventional financial sector.

In the blockchain system, if a majority of participants, referred to as “minors,” reach a consensus on a transaction’s validity, it is then officially approved, time-stamped, and recorded in the shared ledger. Subsequently, a new block is added to the blockchain in a chronological and irrevocable manner. Despite its departure from the existing model, this approach encounters certain drawbacks, notably in terms of speed and cost. The substantial computing power required for transaction verification limits its widespread adoption.

This transformative practice has gained traction since the 2008 financial crisis, affecting both securities and cash systems. A significant challenge identified early in blockchain development is the resource-intensive nature of the current banking system targeted for improvement. This system demands extensive technical resources and involves a large number of individuals on each side of transactions, including institutions playing roles as lenders and borrowers.

The key driver for introducing change is the principle of openness, primarily facilitated through the utilization of blockchain technology. A pivotal aspect of this shift is the regular revaluation of collateral at standard intervals, such as daily or every few hours. This aligns with the market price of the security, providing transparency and efficiency in managing contracts and open positions associated with it.

Given that the period without any constructive action has lasted too long, there is a strong determination among Bitcoin enthusiasts to take charge and promote a new supplement to the blockchain world. This new version competes with the original and proposes an irreversible adjustment of the rules governing Bitcoin’s software. The aim is to enhance network control and facilitate more transactions. Enthusiasts are particularly focused on integrating Bitcoin with other fiat currencies, employing more influential and consensus-based schemes that rely on a certain level of trust among participants.

As blockchain usage raises fewer authorities or security concerns, it’s not surprising that this technology is being considered to advance existing solutions. To cope with fluctuations and the potential fractional return of securities, a margin call is contemplated between the two parties. Each party conducts its own assessment, comparing it with their counterparts. The use of blockchain in the financial sector could fundamentally revolutionize the situation by reducing the complexity of reconciliation processes.

This platform aims to simplify the process by performing a single computation and presenting a harmonized representation to stakeholders, eliminating discrepancies in theory. For this transformation to occur, a majority of mining instruments must align, corresponding to three-quarters of the computing power of the network for two weeks. This demonstrates that the users are reliant on its volatility, emphasizing that the conversion rate of regular money into Bitcoin may differ from when converting Bitcoin into regular money.

This does not imply the necessity of a Bitcoin address to send money, as an email or phone number is sufficient. If the beneficiary lacks a digital wallet in supported currencies, they will receive Bitcoins that can be exchanged on other platforms. Depending on the success of this overhaul and how quickly Bitcoin evolves, the registers where transactions are recorded will develop, and their confrontations will be observed.

We’ve seen how this plays out with Ethereum, which indirectly benefits from Bitcoin’s slowdowns. Regarding the relationship between blockchain and Ethereum, it has increased as an experimental platform involving certain types of smart contracts. These contracts act as self-ruling processor code evolving in the database, fulfilling exchange requirements if specific conditions are met.

Cryptocurrencies have primarily benefited from the enthusiasm, passion, and trust within the global Bitcoin community. Many enthusiasts believe this type of transaction represents the future of money, anticipating it will eventually replace traditional currencies, although not in the short term. Regulation will depend on how willing authorities are to adapt the framework for services offering these transactions. Restrictions in electronic payments related to gambling are expected, with the right to replace or cancel transactions without warning and adjust time limits for exchange and withdrawal.

The new system could support major cryptocurrency mining companies, leading to the absorption and centralization of this movement into an oligopoly. This divergence highlights the opposition between mining businesses and the group responsible for improving the Bitcoin network, bringing together crucial resources.

Blockchain is a technology for immediate data synchronization, and transaction realization involves tests to authenticate specific conditions and ensure compliance with regulations. However, expecting this technology to transform the payment industry in the next few years is overly optimistic. The current technological usage is not tailored for the performance of mass payment resources requiring quick responses, as with payment cards.

The formation of a private blockchain, shared with smart contract tools, appears to be the ultimate solution to optimize reconciliation procedures between financial institutions while remaining visible to regulatory bodies. In any transaction services, this is expected to facilitate the automatic transmission of verified information, automate confirmation procedures, and ensure regulatory compliance.

This article is part of the academic publication Dividing by Zero by Ana Nives Radovic, Global Knowledge 2018

2. The Danger Zone – Where Nominal Yields Do Not Effectively Reimburse the Risk of Collapse

Posted on by Ana Nives Radovic

From a certain point that the markets have already achieved, banks will no longer be capable to boost credit amount to reimburse for losses from their central bank, which might clarify the disintegration of the banking sector.

The phenomenon of negative interest rates embodies an inverted structure wherein the borrower deducts a calculated amount, based on the agreed-upon rate, from the owed sum. This results in a scenario where the more one borrows, the less one repays.

A discernible threat accompanies the rise of negative interest rates, particularly evident in Europe, as it poses a risk to financial independence and economic expectations.

After maintaining its rate at nearly zero for over seven years, the Federal Reserve of the United States announced its first increase in December 2015. Since then, global markets have entered a new era of monetary policy, characterized by exceptional measures adopted by almost all central banks worldwide in response to the previous decade’s financial crisis.

The looming question revolves around whether this upward trajectory will impede the slow economic recovery. Financial and economic entities have grown reliant on easy money, and uncertainties persist regarding their ability to adapt to higher rates. Hence, observers anxiously attempt to discern the potential outcomes by year-end.

In many global markets, especially in Europe, central banks are adopting a reverse trend, implementing a negative interest rate policy for the first time.

The gradual decline in interest rates has taken on a new dimension, enabling numerous countries to reduce their indebtedness. The injection of free liquidity into banks serves as a lifeline for governments. In the case of the European Central Bank, the objective is clear: infuse money into the financial system, fostering a more considerate approach toward indebted countries.

National central banks, expanding their balance sheets by purchasing lower-rated bank debt, inundate financial institutions with free money. However, these institutions, seeking yields, venture into the perilous territory of investing in assets where the nominal yield fails to adequately compensate for the risk of collapse.

This scheme, under ordinary circumstances, would never find traction in a financial system operating close to historical averages. Yet, with abundant liquidity awaiting investment, the hope for increased growth persists. Nonetheless, the mitigating factors fall short of eliminating the probability of a breakdown in such funds.

Moreover, the expectation that banks will offer money at lower rates for an extended period prompts them to make alternative income. Given that the interest rate is near zero, banks generate returns by lending money to others at a somewhat higher interest rate, creating a distinctive income stream.

Ordinary interest rates reflect the interplay between the present and the future, coupled with expectations of future prosperity. This dynamic explains why interest rates tend to be higher in the poorest countries, where the cost of time is minimal. On the contrary, financial interest rates, directly or indirectly influenced by central bankers, represent the cost of accessible money within a specified timeframe. Any deviation from these two scenarios is a harbinger of a crisis where money is supplied without adhering to economic principles.

Negative interest rates create a scenario wherein individuals deposit money with a bank, turning it into a cost rather than a return. In times when conventional savings show minimal gains, borrowing becomes more appealing, as the repayment amount is lower than the borrowed sum.

Consequently, traders seeking yields are compelled to explore speculative dealings and transactions related to commodities such as oil and gold. However, the overarching impact of zero or negative rates on the investment’s value contributes to the endorsement of negative rates on savings without commensurate performance. The inherent risk in banking balance sheets remains elevated, and investors, regardless of their risk aversion, are poised to bear the price of potential losses.

This article is part of the academic publication Dividing by Zero by Ana Nives Radovic, Global Knowledge 2018

1. There’s No Way to Be an Optimist while Zero Rates Appear

Posted on by Ana Nives Radovic

From a certain point that the markets have already achieved, banks will no longer be capable to boost credit amount to reimburse for losses from their central bank, which might clarify the disintegration of the banking sector.

The scenario involving negative interest rates signifies an unconventional structure where the borrower deducts a calculated amount from what they owe, based on the agreed-upon rate between the contractual parties. Essentially, the more one borrows, the less one will need to repay.

The emergence of negative interest rates poses a certain threat, and this concern is becoming more evident in Europe. It poses a risk to financial independence and economic expectations in the region.

For over seven years, the Federal Reserve of the United States maintained its rate at nearly zero. However, a significant shift occurred in December 2015 when the Federal Reserve announced its first interest rate increase. Since then, global markets have entered a new phase of monetary policy known as “exceptional”, adopted by nearly all central banks worldwide following the financial crisis of the previous decade.

The key question revolves around whether the ongoing progress in this new direction will impede the sluggish economic recovery. As financial and economic entities have grown reliant on easy money, there is uncertainty about their ability to adapt to higher interest rates. Hence, observers are keenly trying to decipher potential outcomes by the year’s end.

The global landscape features numerous markets, with Europe being a notable example where central banks are diverging from the norm by initiating a negative interest rate policy for the first time. The gradual decline in interest rates has taken on a new dimension, demonstrating its effectiveness in allowing many countries to reduce their indebtedness. This is achieved through the injection of free liquidity into banks, which then becomes a tool for governments to manage their financial obligations. In the case of the European Central Bank, the primary focus is on injecting money into the financial system, fostering a more accommodating environment for indebted countries – a pathway that is becoming increasingly apparent.

Many national central banks have expanded their balance sheets by acquiring lower-rated bank debt, effectively injecting financial institutions with free money. However, these institutions, in their pursuit of higher yields, may inadvertently step into the danger zone by investing in assets where the nominal yield fails to adequately compensate for the risk of potential collapse.

This particular scheme would unlikely be entertained in a financial system priced close to historical averages. The cash ready for investment has been anticipated as a catalyst for economic growth. Nevertheless, the compensation offered may not be sufficient to entirely mitigate the risk of these funds experiencing a breakdown.

Moreover, this strategy was executed under the assumption that banks would continue offering money at reduced rates for at least a year. In this scenario, where interest rates hover around zero, banks generate returns after loaning money to others who, in turn, pay a somewhat higher interest rate to access those funds. Consequently, the bank realizes varied income streams through this diverse financial arrangement.

The standard interest rate serves as a gauge of the interaction between the present and the future, reflecting expectations of future prosperity. This dynamic is why interest rates tend to be higher in economically challenged countries, where the opportunity cost of time is minimal. Conversely, the financial interest rate, directly or indirectly influenced by central bank policies, signifies the cost of available money at a specific time. Any deviation from the norms of these two scenarios can potentially trigger a crisis, where money is offered without adherence to economic principles.

Negative interest rates come into play when individuals deposit their capital in the bank, turning it into a cost rather than a return. In times like these, conventional savings lose their appeal as they fail to yield any noticeable gains. Instead, borrowing becomes more attractive, as the amount to be repaid is lower than the sum borrowed, creating a distinctive financial landscape.

In such a scenario, traders often resort to an alternative strategy to unearth yields, engaging in speculative dealings and transactions involving commodities like oil and gold. However, the presence of zero or negative interest rates has a detrimental impact on the overall value of investments, promoting negative rates on savings without any corresponding performance. The inherent issue lies in the elevated risk associated with banking balance sheets, and the cost of potential losses is inevitably borne by investors, irrespective of their risk aversion.

This article is part of the academic publication Dividing by Zero by Ana Nives Radovic, Global Knowledge 2018

Introduction to “Dividing by Zero”

Posted on by Ana Nives Radovic

Although created as an alternative to the current financial system, which is characterized by an extremely high degree of institutional control of market processes, bitcoin has many elements of those approaches advocated by the leading proponents of libertarianism, as its way to the broader representation in the daily operations is more difficult, but not impossible.

Growing number of irregularities that occur on the global market, such as currency wars, illogical implementation of zero rate policies and expensive QE programs are another reason for growing trust in bitcoin, since it is not a subject to control of any single institution, having in mind that the level of its demand is the key factor that determines its price.

This research stems from the nature of bitcoin and blockchain platform, which establishes the basis the future of the global financial system, since a growing number of major banks around the world intends to adopt its principles and let them use this type of technology in their operations. Blockchain has proven to be an innovative, fast and reliable channel for the transfer of funds from a much smaller transaction costs compared to what current systems allow, for which financial institutions have shown interest in this model.

Cryptocurrencies, as key financial and technological phenomenon of today, allow the anonymity of transactions, as well as the possibility to make a profit from a change of their values. Since 2013, when the bitcoin become a subject to trade of a large number of participants, created a need to explain its functioning, and all information further contributed in eliminating ambiguities related to them.

The aim of this research is to analyze the possibility of using base which the bitcoin and platform blockchain provide for the creation of future cryptocurrencies and platforms, defining electronic money as a means of payment based on the properties of the physical currencies. The main tasks of this research are the analysis of the origin, essence and role of cryptocurrencies in the modern financial and technological world. The study of the phenomenon of digital money points to the growing need of financial institutions to eliminate the resistance that upon occurrence of cryptocurrencies that are manifested towards this phenomenon, as well as to see the possibilities of their application.

This publication offers the definition of the basic properties cryptocurrencies, their development with an emphasis on bitcoin, as well as its role in the money market. It also shows that the fact that the bitcoin users are directly guided by their confidence, which is the main reason for its success, since it offered the system that guarantees the reliability of transactions and the possibility of their implementation in the short term.